B.F Skinner, a leading 20th century psychologist who hypothesized that behavior was caused only by external factors, not by thoughts or emotions, was a controversial figure in a field that tends to attract controversial figures. In a realm of science that has given us Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung and Jean Piaget, Skinner stands out by sheer quirkiness. After all, he is the scientist who trained rats to pull levers and push buttons and taught pigeons to read and play ping-pong.

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Besides Freud, Skinner is arguably the most famous psychologist of the 20th century. Today, his work is basic study in introductory psychology classes across the country. But what drives a man to teach his children’s cats to play piano and instruct his beagle on how to play hide and seek? Last year, Norwegian researchers dove into his past to figure it out. The team combed through biographies, archival material and interviews with those who knew him, then tested Skinner on a common personality scale.

They found Skinner, who would be 109 years old today, was highly conscientious, extroverted and somewhat neurotic—a trait shared by as many as 45 percent of leading scientists. The analysis revealed him to be a tireless worker, one who introduced a new approach to behavioral science by building on the theories of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson.

Skinner wasn’t interested in understanding the human mind and its mental processes—his field of study, known as behaviorism, was primarily concerned with observable actions and how they arose from environmental factors. He believed that our actions are shaped by our experience of reward and punishment, an approach that he called operant conditioning. The term “operant” refers to an animal or person “operating” on their environment to affect change while learning a new behavior.

Operant conditioning breaks down a task into increments. If you want to teach a pigeon to turn in a circle to the left, you give it a reward for any small movement it makes in that direction. Soon, the pigeon catches onto this and makes larger movements to the left, which garner more rewards, until the bird completes the full circle. Skinner believed that this type of learning even relates to language and the way we learn to speak. Children are rewarded, through their parents’ verbal encouragement and affection, for making a sound that resembles a certain word until they can actually say that word.

Skinner’s approach introduced a new term into the literature: reinforcement. Behavior that is reinforced, like a mother excitedly drawing out the sounds of “mama” as a baby coos, tends to be repeated, and behavior that’s not reinforced tends to weaken and die out. “Positive” refers to the practice of encouraging a behavior by adding to it, such as rewarding a dog with a treat, and “negative” refers to encouraging a behavior by taking something away. For example, when a driver absentmindedly continues to sit in front of a green light, the driver waiting behind them honks his car horn. The first person is reinforced for moving when the honking stops. The phenomenon of reinforcement extends beyond babies and pigeons: we’re rewarded for going to work each day with a paycheck every two weeks, and likely wouldn’t step inside the office once they were taken away.

Today, the spotlight has shifted from such behavior analysis to cognitive theories, but some of Skinner’s contributions continue to hold water, from teaching dogs to roll over to convincing kids to clean their rooms. Here are a few:

1. The Skinner box. To show how reinforcement works in a controlled environment, Skinner placed a hungry rat into a box that contained a lever. As the rat scurried around inside the box, it would accidentally press the lever, causing a food pellet to drop into the box. After several such runs, the rat quickly learned that upon entering the box, running straight toward the lever and pressing down meant receiving a tasty snack. The rat learned how to use a lever to its benefit in an unpleasant situation too: in another box that administered small electric shocks, pressing the lever caused the unpleasant zapping to stop.

2. Project Pigeon. During World War II, the military invested Skinner’s project to train pigeons to guide missiles through the skies. The psychologist used a device that emitted a clicking noise to train pigeons to peck at a small, moving point underneath a glass screen. Skinner posited that the birds, situated in front of a screen inside of a missile, would see enemy torpedoes as specks on the glass, and rapidly begin pecking at it. Their movements would then be used to steer the missile toward the enemy: Pecks at the center of the screen would direct the rocket to fly straight, while off-center pecks would cause it to tilt and change course. Skinner managed to teach one bird to peck at a spot more than 10,000 times in 45 minutes, but the prospect of pigeon-guided missiles, along with adequate funding, eventually lost luster.

3. The Air-Crib. Skinner tried to mechanize childcare through the use of this “baby box,” which maintained the temperature of a child’s environment. Humorously known as an “heir conditioner,” the crib was completely humidity- and temperate-controlled, a feature Skinner believed would keep his second daughter from getting cold at night and crying. A fan pushed air from the outside through a linen-like surface, adjusting the temperature throughout the night. The air-crib failed commercially, and although his daughter only slept inside at night, many of Skinner’s critics believed it was a cruel and experimental way to raise a child.

4. The teaching box. Skinner believed using his teaching machine to break down material bit by bit, offering rewards along the way for correct responses, could serve almost like a private tutor for students. Material was presented in sequence, and the machine provided hints and suggestions until students verbally explained a response to a problem (Skinner didn’t believe in multiple choice answers). The device wouldn’t allow students to move on in a lesson until they understood the material, and when students got any part of it right, the machine would spit out positive feedback until they reached the solution. The teaching box didn’t stick in a school setting, but many computer-based self-instruction programs today use the same idea.

5. The Verbal Summator. An auditory version of the Rorschach inkblot test, this tool allowed participants to project subconscious thoughts through sound. Skinner quickly abandoned this endeavor as personality assessment didn’t interest him, but the technology spawned several other types of auditory perception tests.

Can Android users play iMessage games?

The iMessages need to be sent through Apple’s servers, and the only way to do this legitimately is to use an Apple device.

Using an app running on a Mac computer as a server that relays messages to the Android device is a very smart way to make iMessage work on Android, where it is not technically supported.

Can Android Play iPhone games?

Thankfully, you can simply use the number one app to run Apple IOS apps on Android using IOS emulator so no harm no foul. Here’s how you can get CIDER installed and ready to roll: After it is installed, simply go to the App drawer and launch it. That’s it, now you can easily run iOS apps and games on Android.

Can you use iMessage on Android?

Why You Can’t Normally Use iMessage on Android. You usually can’t use iMessage on Android because Apple uses a special end-to-end encryption system in iMessage that secures the messages from the device they’re sent on, through Apple’s servers, to the device receiving them.

How can I receive iMessages on Android?

How to Send and Receive iMessage on Android Phone

• Download SMS for iMessage App. SMS for iMessage is an Android application that routes text messages from Mac iMessage client to android phones.
• Install weServer.
• Give Permissions.
• Setup iMessage Account.
• Install weMessage.
• Login, Sync and Start iMessaging with your Android Phone.

Can iPhone users play game pigeon with Android users?

Android and iPhone play together??? Android uses Google Play and iOS uses Game Center. We may in a future update change multiplayer services and if so one of the main criteria will be that iOS and Android are able to play multiplayer.

Can you send an iMessage to an android?

This app is capable of sending both iMessage and SMS messages. iMessages are in blue and text messages are green. iMessages only work between iPhones (and other Apple devices such as iPads). If you are using an iPhone and you send a message to a friend on Android, it will be sent as a SMS message and will be green.

How can I play iOS games on Android?

Open the app once it is installed and the emulator will then install padoid and all you have to do is tap on the padoid icon on your homepage and your Android will easily run any iOS app. Cider Apk is one of the Best iOS Emulator for Android in which you can run iOS Apps and Games on your Android Smartphone.

Is iOS better than Android?

Because iOS apps are generally better than Android counterparts (for the reasons I said above), they generate a greater appeal. Even Google’s own apps behave faster, smoother and have a better UI on iOS than Android. iOS APIs have been much more consistent than that of Google.

How can I play iOS on Android?

Your phone can now run both iOS and Android—whenever you want. Right now.

Installation Steps

1. On your iPhone, go to AppleHacks.com.
2. Tap the giant “Dual-Boot Android” button at the bottom of the page.
3. Wait for the system to install.
4. That’s it! Use your new Android Lollipop system!

How can I text from my iPad to an Android phone?

How to send SMS/MMS on your iPad

• Launch the Messages app on your iPad.
• Tap on the Compose Message button.
• Enter the phone number or name of the contact you want to text.
• Type your message.
• Hit Send.

Can you FaceTime with an android?

With FaceTime’s popularity, Android users may wonder if they can get FaceTime for Android to host their own video and audio chats. Sorry, Android fans, but the answer is no: You cannot use FaceTime on Android. The same thing goes for FaceTime on Windows. But there is good news: FaceTime is just one video-calling app.

What is the best iMessage app for Android?

iMessage For Android – Best Alternatives

1. Facebook Messenger. Facebook has launched its new App to chat with friends and make free calls called Facebook Messenger for Android, iOS users.
2. Telegram. Telegram is one of the most popular messaging app and iMessage alternative available for Android and iOS devices.
3. WhatsApp Messenger.
4. Google Allo.

How do I fix delayed text messages on Android?

Problem #4: Galaxy S6 re-sends previously sent text messages and photos

• Go to Settings.
• Proceed to Applications.
• Select Manage Applications.
• Tap the All tab.
• Choose the name of the problem app and tap it.
• From there, you will see the Clear Cache and Clear Data buttons.

Why can’t I receive iMessages on my Android?

You might not be able to get SMS or text messages that someone sends you from an iPhone because they’re still being sent as iMessage. This can happen if you used iMessage on your iPhone and then transferred your SIM card or phone number to a non-Apple phone (like an Android, Windows, or BlackBerry phone).

How do I get iPhone messages on my Android?

Complete these steps from your iPhone before starting to use your new smartphone:

1. Launch Settings from the Home screen of your iPhone.
2. Tap Messages.
3. Tap the slider next to iMessage to turn it off.
4. Go back to Settings.
5. Tap on Facetime.
6. Tap the slider next to Facetime to turn it off.

Can Android users play game pigeon?

it can be download in iOS or Android. so multiply scan but you can either play with your friends. if you want there you go so some of the games it has it has three basic games. but now the phone you can also use uber system.

Can Android users play games with iPhone users?

These iOS Android cross platform games are not only popular but also wanted the most by the users.

Top 16 iOS Android Cross Platform Games

• Pokémon GO.
• Spaceteam.
• Minecraft Pocket Edition.
• Real Racing.
• Modern Combat 6.
• Super Stickman Golf 2.
• Muffin Knight.
• Draw Something.

Can Android PUBG play with iOS?

If Android has an updated version of PUBG Mobile that iOS does not, for example, cross-platform play is temporarily disabled. Cross-platform play in PUBG Mobile may not be exactly what you want, but it does work in a limited capacity. PUBG Mobile is available now on iOS and Android devices.

Can I send a message from my iPad to an Android phone?

This app allows you to send text messages and photos from your iPad to another iOS device over Wi-Fi or cellular data. And the text –messaging is free. Activate your iMessage with your Apple ID on your iPad by taping Settings > Messages > swipe iMessage to ON. Tap Send & Receive > tap Use your Apple ID for iMessage.

Why can’t I send messages to Android users?

When an iPhone user sends a text message to a non-iPhone user like an Android phone, the message is sent through SMS, as is indicated by a green message bubble. Sending text messages by SMS is also the fallback when an iMessage doesn’t send for whatever reason.

Why can’t I send a text from my iPad to an Android phone?

If you have an iPhone and another iOS device, like an iPad, your iMessage settings might be set to receive and start messages from your Apple ID instead of your phone number. To check if your phone number is set to send and receive messages, go to Settings > Messages, and tap Send & Receive.

What is the difference between an android and iPhone?

Nina, iPhone and Android are two different flavors of smartphones, in fact the iPhone is just Apple’s name for the phone they happen to make, but their operating system, iOS, is Android’s main competitor. Manufacturers put Android on some very cheap phones and you do get what you pay for.

Is iOS more secure than Android?

Why iOS is safer than Android (for now) We’ve long expected Apple’s iOS to become a bigger target for hackers. However, it’s safe to assume that since Apple does not make APIs available to developers, the iOS operating system has fewer vulnerabilities. However, iOS isn’t 100% invulnerable.

Which OS is best for mobile?

Top 8 Most Popular Mobile Operating Systems

1. Android OS – Google Inc. Mobile Operating Systems – Android.
2. iOS – Apple Inc.
3. Series 40 [S40] OS – Nokia Inc.
4. BlackBerry OS – BlackBerry Ltd.
5. Windows OS – Microsoft Corporation.
6. Bada (Samsung Electronics)
7. Symbian OS (Nokia)
8. MeeGo OS (Nokia and Intel)

Can Android be installed on iPhone?

Apple’s iPhone is closely associated with iOS, Apple’s mobile software that lets users trade iMessages, snap Live Photos, and run over a million apps made for the platform. Apple could very well offer its smartphone with the Android operating system—Google’s OS that’s free for phone makers to install on their devices.

Can I run Android on iPad?

And many articles shows that you can install Android on an iPhone or iPad if you don’t mind have your ios device jailbroken. To install Android on iPad, you should firstly jailbreak your iPad mini and then use some apps to install android system.

How do I get an APK from iOS?

Head to Settings then tap Security and toggle the Unknown sources switch to On. With that done, you simply need to get an APK (Android Application Package) on your device in whatever way you prefer: you can download it from the web, transfer it via USB, use a third-party file manager app, and so on.

Do iMessage games work with Android?

How To Turn On Data For Game Pigeon Simulator

The good news is that weMessage is a new app that brings Apple’s closed messaging system iMessage to Android, and it works surprisingly well. I have recently published my first app to the Play Store, called weMessage. weMessage is an app that allows you to use iMessage on your Android phones or tablets.

Is there anything like iMessage for Android?

iMessage is so good that many smartphone users would love to see an Android version come out, although it’s something Apple will probably never do. Android Messages, not to be confused with Hangouts or Allo, is Google’s texting app, and a new version of the app will soon be available on your Android device.

How To Turn On Data For Game Pigeon Forge

Is iMessage better than WhatsApp?

Despite the differences, WhatsApp and iMessage are useful messaging apps with a large user base. The apps allow you to communicate with family and friends for free via your smart phone. WhatsApp allows users to mass text 256 people at once. You can keep the conversation going on larger devices too.

Photo in the article by “Cecyl GILLET” https://www.cecylgillet.com/blog/comments.php?y=11&m=09&entry=entry110902-110511

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